Children of the Revolution Read online

  77. Debate of 9 Mar. 1905, in Discours, I, 139

  78. Charles Molette, L’Association Catholique de la Jeunesse Française, 1886–1907 (Paris, Colin, 1968), 501–19; Lagrée, Religion et cultures en Bretagne, 187–92

  79. Charles Maurras, ‘Le Dilemme de Marc Sangnier’, in L’Oeuvre, II (Paris, 1921), 28

  80. Madeleine Barthélemy-Madaule, Marc Sangnier, 1873–1950 (Paris, Seuil, 1973), 15–16

  81. Richard Griffiths, The Reactionary Revolution: The Catholic Revival in French Literature, 1870–1914 (London, Constable, 1966); Frédéric Gugelot, La Conversion des intellectuels au catholicisme en France, 1885–1935 (Paris, CNRS, 1998)

  82. Raïssa Maritain, Les Grandes Amitiés: Souvenirs (New York, 1941), provides an evocative account of this journey. See also Léon Bloy, Journal, II (Paris, Mercure de France, 1958), 308–64; Joseph Bollery, Léon Bloy: Essai de biographie, III (Paris, Albin Michel, 1954), 361– 5

  83. Ernest Psichari, Lettres du centurion: Oeuvres complètes, III (Paris, Louis Conard, 1948), 226, 239, 245–6, 274–5, 320; Agathon, Les Jeunes Gens d’aujourd’hui (Paris, Plon, 1913). Agathon was the nom de plume of Henri Massis and Gabriel Tarde.

  84. Pie Duployé, La Religion de Péguy (Paris, Klincksieck, 1964), 13, 130

  85. Charles Péguy, Notre jeunesse, in Oeuvres en prose, 1909–1914 (Paris, Gallimard, 1957), 646. See also Eric Cahm, Péguy et le nationalisme français de l’Affaire Dreyfus à la Grande Guerre (Paris, Cahiers de l’Amitié Charles Péguy, 25, 1972), 154–60; Géraldi Leroy, Péguy entre l’ordre et la Révolution (Paris, FNSP, 1981), 213–39

  86. Maritain to Péguy, 2 Feb. 1910, cited by Duployé, La Religion de Péguy, 643–4; Raïssa Maritain, Les Grandes Amitiés, 269–74;

  CHAPTER 13: FEMINISM AND

  ITS FRUSTRATIONS

  1. Gyp, Autour du mariage (Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1883), 19–23

  2. Ibid., 299–300

  3. Gyp, Autour du divorce (43rd edn, Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1893), 388

  4. Jules Lemaître, review of 22 Aug. 1886, in Impressions de théâtre. Première série (Paris, 1890), 302–5. See also Alison Finch, Women’s Writing in Nineteenth-century France (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), 181–2

  5. Willa Z. Silverman, The Notorious Life of Gyp: Right-wing Anarchist in Fin-de-Siècle France (New York and Paris, Oxford University Press, 1995), 56. See also Michel Missoff, Gyp et ses amis (Paris, Flammarion, 1932)

  6. Anne-Marie Sohn, Chrysalides: Femmes dans la vie privée (XIXe–XXe siècles) (Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996), I, 511

  7. Ibid., 75–84, II, 914

  8. Paul Bourget, L’Irréparable [1883] (Paris, Plon, 1928)

  9. Léon Blum, Du Mariage [1907], in L’Oeuvre, 1905–1914 (Paris, Albin Michel, 1962)

  10. Sohn, Chrysalides, II, 551, 574–5

  11. Rachel G. Fuchs, Poor and Pregnant in Paris: Strategies for Survival in the Nineteenth Century (New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1992), 106–22, 184–225

  12. Zola, Nana [1880], in Les Rougon-Macquart, II (Paris, Gallimard Pléiade, 1961), 1213; Sohn, Chrysalides, II, 745, 760–71

  13. J. Dartigues, De l’amour expérimental ou les causes de l’adultère chez la femme au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1887), 144. See also Michelle Perrot, ed., A History of Private Life, IV: From the Fires of the Revolution to the Great War (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1990), 590–602, and Laure Adler, Secrets de l’alcôve: Histoire du couple (Paris, Complexe, 1990), 140–47

  14. André Armangaud, ‘Mouvement ouvrier et néo-malthusianisme au début du XXe siècle’, Annales de Démographie Historique (1966), 7–21; Arsène Dumont, Dépopulation et civilisation: Étude démo-graphique (Paris, 1898)

  15. Alexandre Dumas fils, L’Homme-Femme (Paris, 1872), 69–70, 175–6. See also Joëlle Guillais, Crimes of Passion: Dramas of Private Life in Nineteenth-century France (Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990), 136–76, and Annelise Maugue, L’Identité masculine en crise au tournant du siècle, 1871–1914 (Paris, Rivages, 1987), 35–6; Ruth Harris, Murder and Madness: Medicine, Law and Society in the Fin de Siècle (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1989), 289–90

  16. Zola, Nana [1880], in Les Rougon-Macquart, II, 1464

  17. Charles Virmaître, Trottoirs et Lupanars (Paris, 1895), 89–93; Alain Corbin, Women for Hire: Prostitution and Sexuality in France after 1850 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1990), 122–6, 174–6

  18. Sohn, Chrysalides, II, 929

  19. Paul Bourget, Physiologie de l’amour moderne (Paris, Plon, 1891)

  20. Henry Bataille, Maman Colibri, in Théâtre complet, III (Paris, Flammarion, 1924), 239, 294–8, 314, 388–9. See also Maugue, L’Identité masculine en crise, 92–3

  21. Roderick Phillips, Putting Asunder: A History of Divorce in Western Society (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988), 425–7; Antony Copley, Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1990: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality (London and New York, Routledge, 1989), 115–29; Adler, a Secrets de l’alcôve, 184–213

  22. Frances L. Clark, The Position of Women in Contemporary France (London, P. S. King, 1937), 181

  23. Alfred Valensi, ‘L’Application de la loi du divorce en France’ (law thesis, Montpellier, 1905), 91, 175, 184–5

  24. See above, p. 335

  25. Statements of Henriette Caillaux to the Assize Court of the Seine, Gazette des Tribunaux, 21/22 and 23 July 1914.

  26. Gazette des Tribunaux, 30 July 1914. See Peter Shankland, Death of an Editor: The Caillaux Drama (London, Kimber, 1981) and Edward Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983)

  27. Paul Bairoch, ed., La Population active et sa structure (Brussels, Éditions de l’Institut de Sociologie de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1968), 167–9

  28. See, for example, Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, Le Travail des femmes au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1873); Fernand and Maurice Pelloutier, La Vie ouvrière en France (Paris, 1900), 92–124; E. Levasseur, Questions ouvrières et industrielles en France sous la Troisième République (Paris, Arthur Rousseau, 1907), 275–7, 537–40

  29. Yvonne Kniebiehler and Catherine Fouquet, La Femme et les médecins (Paris, Hachette, 1983), 227–30

  30. Madeleine Guilbert, Les Femmes et l’organisation syndicale avant 1914 (Paris, CNRS, 1966), 13

  31. Jean-Paul Burdy, Mathilde Dubesset and Michelle Zancarini-Fournel, ‘Rôles, travaux et métiers de femmes dans une ville industrielle: Saint-Étienne, 1900–1950’, Mouvement Social 140 (1987), 35

  32. Sohn, Chrysalides, I, 144

  33. Helen Harden Chenut, ‘The Gendering of Skill as a Historical Process: The Case of French Knitters in Industrial Troyes, 1880–1939’, in Laura L. Frader and Sonia O. Rose, Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1996), 77–88

  34. Jeanne Bouvier, Mes mémoires: Une Syndicaliste féministe, 1876–1935 (Paris, La Découverte/Maspéro, 1983), 55–93

  35. Marilyn J. Boxer, ‘Women in Industrial Homework: The Flowermakers of Paris in the Belle-Époque’, French Historical Studies 12/3 (1982), 407–13

  36. Judith G. Coffin, The Politics of Women’s Work: The Paris Garment Trades, 1750–1915 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996), 126–56

  37. Tessie P. Liu, The Weaver’s Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750–1914 (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1994), 162–79

  38. Guilbert, Les Femmes et l’organisation syndicale, 231

  39. Bouvier, Mes mémoires, 103

  40. Guilbert, Les Femmes et l’organisation syndicale, 29

  41. Madeline Guilbert, Les Fonctions des femmes dans l’industrie (Paris and The Hague, Mouton, 1966), 47

  42. Laura L. Frader, ‘Engendering Work and Wages: The French Labour Movement and the Family Wage’, in Frader and Rose, Gender and Class in Modern Europe, 150

  43. Charles Sowerwine, ‘Workers and Women in France before 1914: The Debate over the Couriau Affair’, J
ournal of Modern History 55 (1983), 411–41

  44. Raymond Grew and Patrick J. Harrigan, School, State and Society: The Growth of Elementary Schooling in Nineteenth-century France (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1991), 265, 287, 298

  45. Guilbert, Les Femmes et l’organisation syndicale, 14; Fernand Braudel and Ernest Labrousse, eds, Histoire économique et sociale de la France, IV/1 (Paris, PUF, 1979), 458

  46. Susan Bacharach, ‘La Féminisation des PTT en France au tournant du siècle’, Mouvement Social 140 (1987), 69–87

  47. Grew and Harrigan, School, State and Society, 291

  48. Danielle Delhome, Nicole Gault and Josiane Gonthier, Les Premières Institutrices laïques (Paris, Mercure de France, 1980), 87, 107–11, 139

  49. Françoise Rozenzweig, ‘Pauline Kergomard née Reclus (1838–1925) ou comment deviant-on républicaine?’, in Alain Corbin, Jacqueline Lalouette and Michèle Roit-Sarcey, eds, Femmes dans la cité, 1815–1871 (Grâne, Creaphis, 1997), 185–202; Anne T. Quartararo, Women, Teachers and Popular Education in Nineteenth-century France (Newark, University of Delaware Press, 1995), 116–49; Sharif Gemie, Women and Schooling in France, 1815–1914: Gender, Authority and Identity in the Female Schooling Sector (Keele, Keele University Press, 1995), 157–70

  50. Karen Offen, ‘The Second Sex and the baccalauréat in Republican France, 1880–1924’, French Historical Studies 13 (1983), 252–86

  51. Françoise Mayeur, L’Enseignement secondaire des jeunes filles sous la Troisième République (Paris, FNSP, 1977), 241–91; Jo Burr Margadant, Madame le Professeur: Women Educators in the Third Republic (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1990), 47–143; Marguerite Aron, Le Journal d’une Séverine (Paris, Alcan, 1912), 232

  52. George Weisz, The Emergence of Modern Universities in France, 1863–1914 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1983), 246

  53. Eve Curie, Madame Curie: A Biography (New York, Doubleday, 1939)

  54. G. Richelot, La Femme-Médecin (Paris, 1875), 18, 65; Caroline Schultze, La Femme-Médecin au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1888), 16–28; Kniebiehler and Fouquet, La Femme et les médecins, 196–9; Harris, Murders and Madness, 16–77

  55. Felicia Gordon, Integral Feminist: Madeleine Pelletier, 1874–1939: Feminism, Socialism and Medicine (Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990), 13–57

  56. Colette Yver, Les Cervelines (Paris, 1908), 9–10; Colette Yver, Princesses de science [1907] (Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1923), 255. See also Maugue, L’Identité masculine en crise, 43–53

  57. Patrick Kay Bidelman, Pariahs Stand Up! The Founding of the Liberal Feminists Movement in France, 1858–1889 (Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1982), 80. See above, p. 368

  58. Bidelman, Pariahs Stand Up!, 108–25; Steven C. Hause, Hubertine Auclert: The French Suffragette (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1987), 79–92; Mona Ozouf, Women’s Words: Essay on French Singularity (Chicago and London, Chicago University Press, 1994), 132–58

  59. Léon Richer, Le Droit des Femmes, 20 May 1888, cited by Bidelman, Pariahs Stand Up!, 92

  60. Louise Michel, Le Droit des Femmes, 6 Sept. 1885, cited by Bidelman, Pariahs Stand Up!, 129; Hause, Hubertine Auclert, 64

  61. Alexandre Dumas fils, Les Femmes qui tuent et les femmes qui votent (Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1880), 214

  62. Bidelman, Pariahs Stand Up!, 178–80; Corbin, Women for Hire, 216–30

  63. Steven C. Hause and Anne R. Kenney, Women’s Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984), 34–53

  64. Mary Louise Roberts, ‘Acting Up: The Feminist Theatrics of Marguerite Durand’, French Historical Studies 19 (1996), 1120. Republished in Jo Burr Margadant, ed., The New Biography: Performing Feminity in Nineteenth-century France (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, University of California Press, 2000), 171–217. See also Jean Rabaut, Marguerite Durand (1864–1936): ‘La Fronde’ féministe ou ‘Le Temps’ en jupons (Paris, L’Harmattan, 1996)

  65. Bouvier, Mes mémoires, 101

  66. Charles Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens? Women and Socialists in France since 1876 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1982), 77

  67. Silverman, The Notorious Life of Gyp, 158; Roberts, ‘Acting Up: The Feminist Theatrics of Marguerite Durand’, 1126–7

  68. Laurence Klejman and Florence Rochefort, L’Égalité en marche: Le Féminisme sous la Troisième République (Paris, FNSP/Des Femmes, 1989), 109

  69. Sylvie Fayet-Scribe, Associations féminines et Catholicisme (Paris, Éditions Ouvrières, 1990), 57; Odile Sarti, The Ligue Patriotique des Françaises, 1902–1933: A Feminine Response to the Secularization of French Society (New York and London, Garland, 1992), 124–5

  70. Hause, Hubertine Auclert, 186–200; Gordon, Integral Feminist, 85–101

  71. Emmeline Pankhurst, My Own Story (London, Eveleigh Nash, 1914), 10–11; Christabel Pankhurst, Unshackled: The Story of How We Won the Vote (London, Hutchinson, 1959), 16–18, 200–218; E. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Suffragette: The History of the Women’s Militant Suffragette Movement, 1905–1910 (London, Gay & Hancock, 1911), 224–32, 365–7; Hause and Kenney, Women’s Suffrage, 108–13. See also Sandra Stanley Holton, Feminism and Democracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform Politics in Britain, 1900–1918 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986), Laura E. Nym Mayhall, The Militant Suffrage Movement: Citizenship and Resistance in Britain, 1860–1930 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003), and June Purvis, Emmeline Pankhurst: A Biography (London, Routledge, 2002)

  72. Julian Wright, ‘Social Reform, State Reform and Aristide Briand’s Moment of Hope in France, 1909–10’, French Historical Studies 28/1 (2005), 31–67

  73. Hause and Kenney, Women’s Suffrage, 130–31

  74. Gordon, Integral Feminist, 96, 109–13

  75. Auclert, letter of 27 Apr. 1910, cited by Hause and Kenney, Women’s Suffrage, 290, note 20; Pelletier, letter of 2 Nov. 1911, cited by Gordon, Integral Feminist, 18

  76. Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens?, 124–38

  77. Hause and Kenney, Women’s Suffrage, 99

  CHAPTER 14: MODERNISM AND

  MASS CULTURE

  1. Anne Martin-Fugier, Les Salons de la IIIe République: Art, littérature, politique (Paris, Perrin, 2003), 188–93; Joachim Kühn, La Princesse Mathilde, 1820–1904 (Paris, Plon, 1935), 341–6

  2. Alphonse Daudet, Trente ans de Paris (Paris, 1888), 336

  3. Francis Steegmuller, Maupassant (London, Collins, 1950), 107

  4. Robert Baldick, ed., Pages from the Goncourt Journal (London, Penguin, 1984), 330–31, entry for 18 Aug. 1887

  5. J.-K. Huysmans, L’Art moderne [1883] (Paris, Plon, 1908), 128, 271

  6. Gauguin by Himself, ed. Belinda Thomson (Boston, New York and London, Little, Brown, 2000), 23

  7. See Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane, eds, Modernism, 1890– 1930 (London, Penguin, 1976); Bernard Smith, Modernism’s History: A Study in Twentieth-century Art and Ideas (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1998); T. J. Clark, Farewell to an Idea: Episodes from a History of Modernism (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1999)

  8. Ex-Madame Paul Verlaine [Mathilde Mauté], Mémoires de ma vie (Seyssel, Champ Vallon, 1992), 76. See also Jerrold Siegel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life (London, Penguin, 1987), 246–64, and Joanna Richardson, Paul Verlaine (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971)

  9. Quoted by Martin-Fugier, Les Salons, 187–8

  10. Édouard Dujardin, Mallarmé par un des siens (Paris, Messein, 1936), 25

  11. Huysmans, rebours (Paris, Gallimard, 1977), 327. See in general Jean Pierrot, The Decadent Imagination, 1880–1900 (Chicago and London, Chicago University Press, 1981)

  12. Maurice Barrès, Le Secret merveilleux [1892], in Du Sang, de la volupté et de la mort (Paris, 1921), 101–3

  13. Wladyslawa Jaworska, Gauguin and the Pont-Aven School (London, Thames & Hudson, 1972), 75–82, 124; Claire Frèches-Thory, Les Nabis (Paris, Flammarion, 1990), 10–19

  14. Maurice Den
is, Journal, I: 1884–1904 (Paris, La Colombe, 1957), 62–4

  15. Jaworska, Gauguin and the Pont-Aven School, 151

  16. Aurélien Lugné-Poë, La Parade (3 vols, Paris, Gallimard, 1930–33), I, 189–94, II, 53–5; John A. Henderson, The First Avant-Garde, 1887–1894 (London, Harrap, 1971), 96–7, 144, 156

  17. Léon Bloy, review in Le Chat Noir, cited by Robert Baldick, The Life of J.-K. Huysmans (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1955), 90; Abbé Mugnier, Journal (1879–1907) (Paris, Mercure de France, 1985), 62, 72–8, 133, 149, 166–7

  18. Denis, Journal, I, 63, 130–40, 172–82; Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon, Maurice Denis (Ghent, Snoeck-Ducaju & Zoon, 2000), 96–102

  19. Camille Pissarro, Letters to his Son Lucien (London, Kegan Paul, 1943), 170–71, letter of 13 May 1891

  20. Félix Fénéon, Oeuvres plus que complètes (Geneva, Droz, 1970), I, 54, 72–6, 174–83; John G. Hutton, Neo-Impressionism and the Search for Solid Ground: Art, Science and Anarchism in Fin de Siècle France (Baton Rouge and London, Louisiana State University Press, 1994), 49–59, 101–8, 173–5, 188–9

  21. Julia Daudet, Souvenirs autour d’un groupe littéraire (Paris, Charpen-tier, 1910), 80

  22. Jeanne Simone Poquet, Le Salon de Madame Caillavet (Paris, Hachette, 1926), 38–47, 125–34; see also Martin-Fugier, Les Salons, 165–72

  23. Marie-Claire Bancquart, Anatole France: Un Sceptique passionné (Paris, Calmann-Lévy, 1984), 138–9

  24. Léon Blum, ‘En lisant’, 1903–5, in Blum, L’Oeuvre, 1891–1904 (Paris, Albin Michel, 1954), 85, cited by James Smith Allen, In the Public Eye: A History of Reading in Modern Europe (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1991), 120

  25. Myriam Harry, La Vie de Jules Lemaître (Paris, Flammarion, 1946), 119–87; Martin-Fugier, Les Salons, 166–73. On the Comtesse de Loynes see also above, pp. 57–8

  26. Jules Lemaître, Theatrical Impressions (Port Washington, New York and London, Kennicat Press, 1970), 125–7, 136–8

  27. Augustin Filon, De Dumas à Rostand: Esquisse d’un movement drama-tique contemporain (Paris, Colin, 1898), 295